DNA and RNA

1. Watch this video

2. Read about Gene Expression

In Unit 1 of this course, you learned about the structure and function of nucleic acids. Nucleic acids are the molecules of heredity, and they include DNA and RNA.

In this unit — Unit 6 — we’ll apply what we learned in Unit 1 to explain the biochemical nature of genes, and how genes (the units of heredity) get expressed in the phenotype (the observable appearance) of an organism.

On a cellular level, the basic idea of gene expression is that genetic information, in the form of DNA, gets converted into RNA, which provides instructions for assembling proteins. The conversion of DNA information into RNA is called transcription. The conversion of RNA information into the amino acid sequence that makes up the primary structure of a protein is called translation.

Numbered diagram of transcription and translation within a cell (1). DNA (3) inside the nucleus (2) is transcribed (4) into RNA (5). The RNA leaves the nucleus to enter the cytoplasm (6) and interact with a ribosome (7) to translate a sequence of amino acids (8).This diagram shows how gene expression works in a very simplified cell.

  • Number 3 shows DNA in the nucleus (with 2 representing the nuclear membrane)
  • Number 4 shows DNA being transcribed into RNA (5)
  • Number 7 shows translation: A ribosome is translating RNA information (the red line) into a sequence of amino acids (8) which will fold up to become a protein.

While the image on the right shows a simplified eukaryotic cell, keep in mind that with some minor differences, the processes of transcription and translation occur in prokaryotic cells as well.

The flow of information from DNA to RNA to protein is such a key idea that it’s called the central dogma of molecular biology. Dogma means “authoritative idea,” and as an AP Bio student, you need to understand the central dogma well. It’s usually expressed as DNA makes RNA makes protein. 

3. Study this summary

Structure of DNA

  • DNA is a double-stranded helical molecule made of nucleotide monomers.
    • Each nucleotide consists of:
      • Deoxyribose sugar (5-carbon sugar)
      • Phosphate group
      • One of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G).
    • The sugar and phosphate form the sugar-phosphate backbone, connected by covalent bonds.
    • The nitrogenous bases pair through hydrogen bonds:
      • A pairs with T.
      • G pairs with C.
  • DNA strands are anti-parallel:
    • One strand runs 5′ to 3′.
    • The other runs 3′ to 5′.

DNA as the Molecule of Heredity

  1. Information Storage:
    • DNA’s sequence of bases (e.g., ACGT) acts as an informational code specifying RNA and protein sequences.
  2. Replicability:
    • Base-pairing (A-T, G-C) allows DNA strands to serve as templates for complementary strand synthesis, ensuring accurate replication.
  3. Stability:
    • The double helix protects the bases, making DNA a stable molecule.
  4. Mutability:
    • DNA can mutate (spontaneously or due to environmental factors), allowing for genetic variation and evolution.

DNA vs. RNA

  • DNA:
    • Molecule of heredity in all cellular life.
    • Double-stranded and highly stable.
  • RNA:
    • Molecule of heredity in some viruses (e.g., HIV, SARS-CoV-2).
    • In all organisms, RNA is involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation.
      • Types include:
        • mRNA: Messenger RNA.
        • tRNA: Transfer RNA.
        • rRNA: Ribosomal RNA.
      • Functions include splicing introns (non-coding regions) and regulating protein synthesis.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Genetic Information Storage

  • Prokaryotes:
    • DNA is stored in looped circular chromosomes (no start or end).
    • Genomes are small (100,000 to 10 million base pairs) and naked (not wrapped around proteins).
  • Eukaryotes:
    • DNA is stored in linear chromosomes.
    • DNA is wrapped around proteins called histones.
    • Genomes are much larger (e.g., human genome: 3.2 billion base pairs; some plants: up to 150 billion base pairs).

Plasmids

  • Small, extra-chromosomal loops of DNA, mostly found in bacteria.
  • Functions:
    • Facilitate horizontal gene transfer (e.g., antibiotic resistance genes).
    • Used in genetic engineering for DNA replication and expressing engineered genes in bacteria.
  • Involved in bacterial conjugation (transfer of plasmids between cells).

4. Master these flashcards

[qdeck bold_text=”false” style=”width: 550px !important; min-height: 400px !important;”]

[h]Nucleic Acids Review Flashcards

[q]Using the diagram below, describe the basic flow of information in cells.

[a]

DNA (3) is the molecule of heredity. DNA gets transcribed into RNA (5), which carries information to ribosomes (7), which translate information in RNA into protein (8).

[q json=”true” yy=”4″ unit=”1.Chemistry_of_Life” dataset_id=”AP_Bio_Flashcards_2022|1ed774e81a910″ question_number=”38″ topic=”1.5-6.Proteins_and_Nucleic_Acids”] Describe the biological importance of DNA and RNA.

[a] DNA is the molecule of heredity. It’s the informational part of the chromosomes that get passed from one generation to the next during reproduction, and from mother cells to daughter cells during growth and development.

While RNA is a hereditary molecule in some viruses, its key role is information transfer, as in messenger RNA. RNA can also act as an enzyme, catalyzing reactions.

[q json=”true” yy=”4″ unit=”1.Chemistry_of_Life” dataset_id=”AP_Bio_Flashcards_2022|1ecd453415110″ question_number=”39″ topic=”1.5-6.Proteins_and_Nucleic_Acids”] Name the monomer of nucleic acids and describe this monomer’s structure.

[a] The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides, which consist of a 5-carbon sugar (at 2), a phosphate group (at 1), and one of four nitrogenous bases (at 3). The phosphate group is connected to the 5’ carbon in the sugar, and the nitrogenous base is connected to the 1’ carbon.

[q]Describe how the monomers of RNA and DNA are different.

[a]In RNA, the sugar is ribose, and the bases are adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose, and the bases are adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

 

[q]Use this diagram to identify the key parts of DNA

[a]1. Deoxyribose; 2. Phosphate groups; 3. sugar-phosphate bonds; 4. Nitrogenous bases; 5. An entire nucleotide; 6. Hydrogen bonds. 7. Sugar-phosphate backbone

[q json=”true” yy=”4″ unit=”1.Chemistry_of_Life” dataset_id=”AP_Bio_Flashcards_2022|1eb8c08b4bd10″ question_number=”41″ topic=”1.5-6.Proteins_and_Nucleic_Acids”] Describe the structure of DNA.

[a] DNA consists of two nucleotide strands. Within each strand, the nucleotides connect by sugar-phosphate bonds. The strands connect by hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases with complementary shapes: adenine bonds with thymine; cytosine binds with guanine. The binding requires that the nucleotides be oriented upside-down relative to one another. Hence, the two strands are antiparallel, with one strand running 5’ to 3’ in one direction, and the other running 5’ to 3’ in the opposite direction.

[q] Nucleic acids are life’s key information molecule. How do they store information?

[a] Nucleic acids store information in their sequence of nucleotides. That sequence can be translated into the primary structure of a protein, allowing information to become molecular structures that carry out specific functions (as in enzymes and other protein molecules).

[q] What are the base-pairing rules in DNA? Why are these rules important?

[a] The base-pairing rules allow for DNA to be accurately copied from one generation of organisms or cells to the next. The rules are A (adenine) binds with T (thymine) and C (cytosine) binds with G (guanine)

[q]What is DNA’s basic structure?
[a]DNA is a double-stranded helical molecule made of nucleotide monomers.

[q]What are the three components of a DNA nucleotide?
[a]- Deoxyribose sugar (5-carbon sugar)
– Phosphate group
– One of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G)

[q]What forms the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA?
[a]The sugar and phosphate groups form the sugar-phosphate backbone, connected by covalent bonds.

[q]How do nitrogenous bases pair in DNA?
[a]A pairs with T, and G pairs with C, through hydrogen bonds.

[q]What does it mean that DNA strands are anti-parallel?
[a]One strand runs 5′ to 3′, while the other runs 3′ to 5′.

[q]How does DNA store genetic information?
[a]DNA’s sequence of bases acts as a code specifying RNA and protein sequences.

[q]What enables DNA to replicate accurately?
[a]Base-pairing (A-T, G-C) allows each strand to serve as a template for complementary strand synthesis.

[q]Why is DNA considered stable?
[a]The double helix structure protects the bases, making DNA a stable molecule.

[q]How does DNA contribute to genetic variation?
[a]DNA can mutate spontaneously or due to environmental factors, allowing for genetic variation and evolution.

[q]How does DNA differ from RNA in structure and function?
[a]- DNA: Double-stranded and stable; molecule of heredity in all cellular life.
– RNA: Single-stranded and less stable; involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation.

[q]What are the types of RNA and their functions?
[a]- mRNA: Messenger RNA, carries genetic information to ribosomes.
– tRNA: Transfer RNA, delivers amino acids during protein synthesis.
– rRNA: Ribosomal RNA, structural component of ribosomes.

[q]How is genetic information stored in prokaryotes?
[a]DNA is stored in looped circular chromosomes and is not wrapped around proteins (naked DNA).

[q]How is genetic information stored in eukaryotes?
[a]DNA is stored in linear chromosomes, wrapped around histone proteins.

[q]How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes differ in size?
[a]- Prokaryotes: Small genomes (100,000 to 10 million base pairs).
– Eukaryotes: Larger genomes (e.g., human genome: 3.2 billion base pairs).

[q]What are plasmids?
[a]Plasmids are small, extra-chromosomal loops of DNA, mostly found in bacteria.

[q]What is the role of plasmids in horizontal gene transfer?
[a]Plasmids facilitate the transfer of genes (e.g., antibiotic resistance) between bacterial cells.

[q]How are plasmids used in genetic engineering?
[a]Plasmids are used to replicate DNA and express engineered genes in bacteria.

[q]What process allows bacteria to transfer plasmids between cells?
[a]Bacterial conjugation allows the transfer of plasmids between cells.

[/qdeck]

4. Tackle these quizzes

[qwiz random = “true” style=”width: 550px !important; min-height: 450px !important;”]

[h] DNA, RNA, and Nucleotides: Checking Understanding

[i]

[q] When parents pass genes on to their offspring, they’re doing it through the transmission of [hangman].

[c]IEROQQ==[Qq]

[f]IEV4Y2VsbGVudCE=[Qq]

[q] To use an analogy from the kitchen, DNA provides a kind of [hangman] that cells follow by making two other types of molecules: one is another nucleic acid called [hangman] (shown at “5”); the second is [hangman] (a polymer of amino acids, shown at “8”).

[c]IHJlY2lwZQ==[Qq]

[f]IEV4Y2VsbGVudCE=[Qq]

[c]IFJOQQ==[Qq]

[f]IEdyZWF0IQ==[Qq]

[c]IHByb3RlaW4=[Qq]

[f]IEdvb2Qh[Qq]

[q] In multicellular animals like ourselves, DNA also guides the pattern of [hangman] by which a fertilized egg develops into a multicellular organism.

[c]IGRldmVsb3BtZW50[Qq]

[f]IENvcnJlY3Qh[Qq]

[q] In organisms, the nucleic acid [hangman] is the molecule of heredity. The only entities where RNA acts as the molecule of heredity are some (but not all) of the infectious particles known as [hangman].

[c]RE5B[Qq]

[c]IHZpcnVzZXM=[Qq]

[f]IEdvb2Qh[Qq]

[q] The monomers of nucleic acids are called [hangman].

[c]IG51Y2xlb3RpZGVz[Qq]

[f]IEdvb2Qh[Qq]

[q] The sugar in DNA (shown on the right at “2) is [hangman]. The sugar in RNA (shown on the left at “2”) is [hangman].

[c]IGRlb3h5cmlib3Nl[Qq]

[f]IENvcnJlY3Qh[Qq]

[c]IHJpYm9zZQ==[Qq]

[f]IENvcnJlY3Qh[Qq]

[q] Whereas DNA has the nitrogenous base thymine, RNA uses [hangman].

[c]IHVyYWNpbA==[Qq]

[f]IEdyZWF0IQ==[Qq]

[q] The three subparts of a nucleotide are a five carbon [hangman] (at “2”), a [hangman] base (at “4”) , and a [hangman] group (at “1”).

[c]IHN1Z2Fy[Qq]

[f]IEdyZWF0IQ==[Qq]

[c]IG5pdHJvZ2Vub3Vz[Qq]

[f]IEV4Y2VsbGVudCE=[Qq]

[c]IHBob3NwaGF0ZQ==[Qq]

[f]IEdvb2Qh[Qq]

[q] The flow of information in a cell starts with [hangman] in the cell’s nucleus. Then, the information in DNA is transformed into [hangman] which takes that information out to the cytoplasm. There, the information gets transformed into [hangman].

[c]IEROQQ==[Qq]

[f]IEV4Y2VsbGVudCE=[Qq]

[c]IFJOQQ==[Qq]

[f]IEdyZWF0IQ==[Qq]

[c]IHByb3RlaW4=[Qq]

[f]IEdvb2Qh[Qq]

[q] In the diagram below, DNA is at

[textentry single_char=”true”]

[c]ID M=[Qq]

[f]IEV4Y2VsbGVudDogJiM4MjIwOzMmIzgyMjE7IGlzIEROQS4=[Qq]

[c]ICo=[Qq]

[f]IEhlcmUmIzgyMTc7cyBhIGhpbnQ6IEROQSBpcyBhIGRvdWJsZSBoZWxpeC4=[Qq]

[c]IEVudGVyIGxldHRlcg==[Qq]

[q] In the diagram below, RNA that has just been transcribed is at

[textentry single_char=”true”]

[c]ID U=[Qq]

[f]IE5pY2U6ICYjODIyMDs1JiM4MjIxOyBpcyBSTkEgdGhhdCBpcyBzdGlsbCBpbiB0aGUgbnVjbGV1cywgYW5kIGhhcyBqdXN0IGJlZW4gdHJhbnNjcmliZWQu[Qq]

[c]ICo=[Qq]

[f]IEhlcmUmIzgyMTc7cyBhIGhpbnQ6IFJOQSBpcyBmb3VuZCBpbiBib3RoIHRoZSBudWNsZXVzIGFuZCB0aGUgY3l0b3BsYXNtLiBGaW5kIHRoZSBSTkEgaW4gdGhlIG51Y2xldXMu[Qq]

[c]IEVudGVyIGxldHRlcg==

Cgo=
Cg==

Ww==[Qq]q labels = “top”]

 

 

[l]deoxyribose

[fx] No, that’s not correct.  Please try again.

[f*] Good!

[l]hydrogen bonds

[fx] No, that’s not correct.  Please try again.

[f*] Excellent!

[l]nitrogenous base

[fx] No.  Please try again.

[f*] Great!

[l]nucleotide

[fx] No.  Please try again.

[f*] Correct!

[l]phosphate group

[fx] No.  Please try again.

[f*] Good!

[l]sugar-phosphate backbone

[fx] No.  Please try again.

[f*] Great!

[l]sugar-phosphate bond

[fx] No, that’s not correct.  Please try again.

[f*] Good!

[q labels = “top”]

 

[l]hydrogen bond

[fx] No.  Please try again.

[f*] Good!

[l]covalent bond

[fx] No, that’s not correct.  Please try again.

[f*] Excellent!

[q hotspot_user_interaction=”label_prompt” show_hotspots=”” ] DNA structure. Click on the numbers.

The number for deoxyribose.

Excellent! “1” is deoxyribose.

HINT FOR NEXT TIME: Deoxyribose is a five carbon sugar.
The number for the phosphate groups.

Nice! “2” represents phosphate groups

HINT FOR NEXT TIME: What letter does phosphate begin with?
The number for sugar phosphate bonds.

Way to go. “3” represents sugar-phosphate bonds.

HINT FOR NEXT TIME: “D” represents the sugar deoxyribose. “P” represents a phosphate. What bonds connect them?
The number for nitrogenous bases.

Good job. “4” represents nitrogenous bases.

HINT FOR NEXT TIME:  The nitrogenous bases are represented by the letters A, T, C, and G, and they connect by hydrogen bonds.
The number for a complete nucleotide.

Nice! “5” represents a nucleotide.

HINT FOR NEXT TIME: You’re looking for something that consists of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. 
The number for hydrogen bonds.

Great! “6” represents hydrogen bonds.

HINT FOR NEXT TIME: Hydrogen bonds connect the two strands of DNA, and are between the nitrogenous bases.
The number of the sugar-phosphate backbone.

Good work! “7” represents the sugar phosphate backbones.

HINT FOR NEXT TIME: The backbone consists of repeated sugars and phosphates. 

 

[q hotspot_user_interaction=”label_prompt” show_hotspots=””] Nucleotides: click on the numbers

Phosphate group.

Nice! “1” is a phosphate group.

HINT FOR NEXT TIME: A phosphate group has a phosphorus atom in its center.
Nitrogenous base

Yes! “2” is a nitrogenous base.

HINT FOR NEXT TIME: The nitrogenous bases have lots of nitrogen atoms.
Deoxyribose

Awesome. “2” is deoxyribose.

HINT FOR NEXT TIME: Deoxyribose is a 5 carbon sugar.

 

[q]The central dogma of molecular genetics is DNA makes ____ makes protein

[hangman]

[c]Uk5B[Qq]

[f]R2VuaXVzISBUaGUgY2VudHJhbCBkb2dtYSBvZiBtb2xlY3VsYXIgZ2VuZXRpY3MgaXMgRE5BIG1ha2VzIA==Uk5BIG1ha2VzIHByb3RlaW4=

Cg==

[Qq]

[q]In DNA, the orientation of the two complementary strands is

[hangman]

[c]YW50aS1wYXJhbGxlbA==[Qq]

[f]TmljZSEgSW4gRE5BLCB0aGUgb3JpZW50YXRpb24gb2YgdGhlIHR3byBjb21wbGVtZW50YXJ5IHN0cmFuZHMgaXMgYW50aS1wYXJhbGxlbA==

Cg==

[Qq]

[q]Adenine is complementary to

[hangman]

[c]dGh5bWluZQ==[Qq]

[f]R29vZCBqb2IuIEFkZW5pbmUgaXMgY29tcGxlbWVudGFyeSB0byA=dGh5bWluZQ==

Cg==

[Qq]

[q]Cytosine is complementary to

[hangman]

[c]Z3VhbmluZQ==[Qq]

[f]WWVhaCEgQ3l0b3NpbmUgaXMgY29tcGxlbWVudGFyeSB0byBndWFuaW5l[Qq]

[q]In a DNA nucleotide, the sugar is

[hangman]

[c]ZGVveHlyaWJvc2U=[Qq]

[f]R29vZCBqb2IhIEluIGEgRE5BIG51Y2xlb3RpZGUsIHRoZSBzdWdhciBpcyA=ZGVveHlyaWJvc2U=

Cg==

[Qq]

[q]In the diagram of a DNA molecule below, which number is pointing to a phosphate group?

[c]IDE=[Qq]

[c]IDI=[Qq]

[c]ID M=[Qq]

[c]IDQ=[Qq]

[c]IDU=[Qq]

[c]IDY=[Qq]

[c]IDc=[Qq]

[c]IDg=[Qq]

[c]IDk=[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciAxIGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgc3VnYXItcGhvc3BoYXRlIGJhY2tib25lLg==[Qq]
[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciAyIGluZGljYXRlcyBhIHN1Z2FyLXBob3NwaGF0ZSBib25kLg==[Qq]
[f]WWVzLiBOdW1iZXIgMyBpbmRpY2F0ZXMgYSBwaG9zcGhhdGUgZ3JvdXAu[Qq]
[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA0IGluZGljYXRlcyBkZW94eXJpYm9zZS4=

Cg==[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA1IGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgbml0cm9nZW5vdXMgYmFzZXMgYWRlbmluZQ==Lg==[Qq]
[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA2IGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgbml0cm9nZW5vdXMgYmFzZXMgdGh5bWluZQ==Lg==[Qq]
[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA3IGluZGljYXRlcyBoeWRyb2dlbiBib25kcy4=[Qq]
[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA4IGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgbml0cm9nZW5vdXMgYmFzZSA=Y3l0b3NpbmU=Lg==

Cg==[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA5IGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgbml0cm9nZW5vdXMgYmFzZSA=Z3VhbmluZQ==Lg==[Qq]

[q]During DNA replication, each parent strand serves as a _________ for the synthesis of a new strand

[c]bW9kZWw=[Qq]

[c]bW9sZA==[Qq]

[c]dGVtcG xhdGU=[Qq]

[c]Zm9ybQ==[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIOKAnE1vZGVs4oCdIGRvZXNu4oCZdCBxdWl0ZSB3b3JrLCBiZWNhdXNlIHRoZSBuZXcgRE5BIGlzIGNvbXBsZW1lbnRhcnkgdG8gdGhlIHBhcmVudCBzdHJhbmQuIFNlZSBpZiB5b3UgY2FuIGZpbmQgYSBtb3JlIGFjY3VyYXRlIGRlc2NyaXB0aW9uIG9mIHRoZSByZWxhdGlvbnNoaXAgYmV0d2VlbiB0aGUgcGFyZW50IHN0cmFuZCBhbmQgdGhlIG5ldyBzdHJhbmQu[Qq]

[f]IE5vLiDigJxNb2xk4oCdIGlzIHZlcnkgY2xvc2UsIGJ1dCBmaW5kIGEgbW9yZSB3aWRlbHkgdXNlZCB0ZXJtIHRvIGRlc2NyaWJlIHRoZSByb2xlIHRoYXQgdGhlIHBhcmVudCBzdHJhbmQgcGxheXMgc3RyYW5kLg==[Qq]

[f]WWVzLiBEdXJpbmcgRE5BIHJlcGxpY2F0aW9uLCBlYWNoIHBhcmVudCBzdHJhbmQgc2VydmVzIGFzIGEgdGVtcGxhdGUgZm9yIHRoZSBzeW50aGVzaXMgb2YgYSBuZXcgc3RyYW5kLg==[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIOKAnEZvcm3igJ0gZG9lc27igJl0IHF1aXRlIHdvcmssIGJlY2F1c2UgdGhlIG5ldyBETkEgaXMgY29tcGxlbWVudGFyeSB0byB0aGUgcGFyZW50IHN0cmFuZC4gU2VlIGlmIHlvdSBjYW4gZmluZCBhIG1vcmUgYWNjdXJhdGUgZGVzY3JpcHRpb24gb2YgdGhlIHJlbGF0aW9uc2hpcCBiZXR3ZWVuIHRoZSBwYXJlbnQgc3RyYW5kIGFuZCB0aGUgbmV3IHN0cmFuZC4=

Cg==

[Qq]

[q labels = “top”]

 

[l]RNA

[fx] No, that’s not correct. Please try again.

[f*] Great!

[l]translation of RNA to protein

[fx] No, that’s not correct. Please try again.

[f*] Correct!

[l]DNA

[fx] No, that’s not correct. Please try again.

[f*] Excellent!

[l]cell membrane

[fx] No. Please try again.

[f*] Excellent!

[l]cytoplasm

[fx] No, that’s not correct. Please try again.

[f*] Good!

[l]protein

[fx] No, that’s not correct. Please try again.

[f*] Good!

[l]transcription of DNA to RNA

[fx] No, that’s not correct. Please try again.

[f*] Great!

[l]nuclear membrane

[fx] No, that’s not correct. Please try again.

[f*] Excellent!

[q]In the diagram of a DNA molecule below, which number represents hydrogen bonds?

[c]IDE=[Qq]

[c]IDI=[Qq]

[c]IDM=[Qq]

[c]IDQ=[Qq]

[c]IDU=[Qq]

[c]IDY=[Qq]

[c]ID c=[Qq]

[c]IDg=[Qq]

[c]IDk=[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciAxIGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgc3VnYXItcGhvc3BoYXRlIGJhY2tib25lLg==[Qq]
[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciAyIGluZGljYXRlcyBhIHN1Z2FyLXBob3NwaGF0ZSBib25kLg==[Qq]
[f]WWVzLiBOdW1iZXIgMyBpbmRpY2F0ZXMgYSBwaG9zcGhhdGUgZ3JvdXAu[Qq]
[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA0IGluZGljYXRlcyBkZW94eXJpYm9zZS4=

Cg==[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA1IGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgbml0cm9nZW5vdXMgYmFzZXMgYWRlbmluZQ==Lg==[Qq]
[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA2IGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgbml0cm9nZW5vdXMgYmFzZXMgdGh5bWluZQ==Lg==[Qq]
[f]WWVzLiBOdW1iZXIgNyBpbmRpY2F0ZXMgaHlkcm9nZW4gYm9uZHMu[Qq]
[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA4IGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgbml0cm9nZW5vdXMgYmFzZSA=Y3l0b3NpbmU=Lg==

Cg==[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIE51bWJlciA5IGluZGljYXRlcyB0aGUgbml0cm9nZW5vdXMgYmFzZSA=Z3VhbmluZQ==Lg==[Qq]

[q]The bonds that connect complementary nucleotides are [hangman] bonds.

 

[c]aHlkcm9nZW4=

Cg==

W2FdQXdlc29tZSEgVGhlIGJvbmRzIHRoYXQgY29ubmVjdCBjb21wbGVtZW50YXJ5IG51Y2xlb3RpZGVzIGFyZSA=aHlkcm9nZW4=IGJvbmRzLg==

[Qq]

[q]The process shown below is

[c]dHJhbnNjcmlwdGlvbg==[Qq]

[c]dHJhbnNsYXRpb24=[Qq]

[c]cmVwbGlj YXRpb24=[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIFRyYW5zY3JpcHRpb24gaXMgbWFraW5nIFJOQSBmcm9tIEROQS4gVGhlIHByb2Nlc3MgYWJvdmUgc2hvd3MgdGhlIGNvcHlpbmcgb2YgRE5BLiBXaGF0JiM4MjE3O3MgdGhhdCBjYWxsZWQ/[Qq]

[f]Tm8uIFRyYW5zbGF0aW9uIGlzIG1ha2luZyBwcm90ZWluLiBUaGUgcHJvY2VzcyBhYm92ZSBzaG93cyB0aGUgY29weWluZyBvZiBETkEuIFdoYXQmIzgyMTc7cyB0aGF0IGNhbGxlZD8=[Qq]

[f]WWVzLiBUaGUgcHJvY2VzcyBzaG93biBhYm92ZSDigJMgY29weWluZyBETkEg4oCTIGlzIGtub3duIGFzIHJlcGxpY2F0aW9uLg==[Qq]

[x]

[restart]

[/qwiz]

What’s Next?

Proceed to the next tutorial: DNA Replication